An Introduction to Brain and Behavior

Chapter 1What Are the Origins of Brain and Behavior?CLINICAL FOCUS 1-1 Living with Traumatic Brain Injury1-1 The Brain in the Twenty-First CenturyWhy Study Brain and Behavior?What Is the Brain?What Is Behavior?1-2 Theories of Brain and BehaviorAristotle and MentalismDescartes and DualismCOMPARATIVE FOCUS 1-2 The Speaking BrainDarwin and MaterialismEXPERIMENT 1-1 Question: How do parents transmit heritable factors to offspring?Toward Contemporary Perspectives on Consciousness1-3 Evolution of Brains and of BehaviorOrigin of Brain Cells and BrainsThe Basics: Classification of LifeEvolution of Nervous Systems in AnimalsChordate Brain1-4 Evolution of the Human Brain and BehaviorHumans: Members of the Primate OrderAustralopithecus: Our Distant AncestorThe First HumansRelating Brain Complexity and BehaviorCOMPARATIVE FOCUS 1-3 The Elephant’s BrainWhy the Hominin Brain Became More Complex1-5 Modern Human Brain Size, Intelligence, and CultureThe Significance of Human Brain Size ComparisonsThe Significance of Human IntelligenceThe Significance of Human Culture

Chapter 2What Is the Nervous System’s Functional Anatomy?RESEARCH FOCUS 2-1 Agenesis of the Cerebellum2-1 Overview of Brain Function and StructurePlastic Patterns of Neural OrganizationFunctional Organization of the Nervous SystemThe Brain’s Surface FeaturesThe Basics: Finding Your Way Around the BrainCLINICAL FOCUS 2-2 Meningitis and EncephalitisThe Brain’s Internal FeaturesCLINICAL FOCUS 2-3 Stroke2-2 The Conserved Pattern of Nervous System DevelopmentComparative Brain EvolutionThe Nervous System and Intelligent BehaviorEXPERIMENT 2-1 Question: Does intelligent behavior require a vertebrate nervous system organization?2-3 The Central Nervous System: Mediating BehaviorSpinal CordBrainstemForebrainCerebral CortexBasal Ganglia2-4 Somatic Nervous System: Transmitting InformationCranial NervesSpinal NervesSomatic Nervous System ConnectionsIntegrating Spinal FunctionCLINICAL FOCUS 2-4 Bell Palsy2-5 Autonomic and Enteric Nervous Systems: Visceral RelationsANS: Regulating Internal FunctionsENS: Controlling the Gut2-6 Ten Principles of Nervous System FunctionPrinciple 1: Neuronal Circuits Are the Functional Units of the Nervous SystemPrinciple 2: Sensory and Motor Divisions Pervade the Nervous SystemPrinciple 3: The CNS Functions on Multiple Levels and Is Organized Hierarchically and in ParallelPrinciple 4: Many Brain Circuits Are CrossedPrinciple 5: Brain Functions Are Localized and DistributedPrinciple 6: The Brain Is Symmetrical and AsymmetricalPrinciple 7: The Nervous System Works by Juxtaposing Excitation and InhibitionPrinciple 8: The Brain Divides Sensory Input for Object Recognition and MovementPrinciple 9: The Nervous System Produces Movement in a Perceptual World the Brain ConstructsPrinciple 10: Neuroplasticity Is the Hallmark of Nervous System Functioning

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Chapter 3What Are the Nervous System’s Functional Units?RESEARCH FOCUS 3-1 A Genetic Diagnosis3-1 Cells of the Nervous SystemNeurons: The Basis of Information ProcessingEXPERIMENT 3-1 Question: Can the principles of neural excitation and inhibition control the activity of a simple robot that behaves like a cricket?Classes of Glial CellsCLINICAL FOCUS 3-2 Brain Tumors3-2 Internal Structure of a CellThe Basics: Chemistry ReviewThe Cell as a FactoryCell Membrane: Barrier and GatekeeperThe Nucleus and Protein SynthesisThe Endoplasmic Reticulum and Protein ManufactureProteins and RNA: The Cell’s ProductsGolgi Bodies and Microtubules: Protein Packaging and ShipmentCrossing the Cell Membrane: Channels, Gates, and Pumps3-3 Genes, Cells, and BehaviorMendelian Genetics and the Genetic CodeApplying Mendel’s PrinciplesCLINICAL FOCUS 3-3 Huntington DiseaseGenetic EngineeringThe Epigenetic Code

Chapter 4How Do Neurons Use Electrical Signals to Transmit Information?4-1 Searching for Electrical Activity in the Nervous SystemCLINICAL FOCUS 4-1 EpilepsyEarly Clues That Linked Electricity and Neuronal ActivityThe Basics: Electricity and Electrical StimulationTools for Measuring a Neuron’s Electrical ActivityHow Ion Movement Produces Electrical Charges4-2 Electrical Activity at the Dendritic and Cell Body MembraneResting PotentialMaintaining the Resting PotentialHow Neurons Integrate InformationExcitatory and Inhibitory Postsynaptic PotentialsEXPERIMENT 4-1 Question: How does stimulating a neuron influence its excitability?Summation of Inputs4-3 Generation and Propagation of the Action PotentialTriggering an Action PotentialRole of Voltage-Activated Ion ChannelsThe Versatile NeuronRESEARCH FOCUS 4-3 Optogenetics and Light-Sensitive Ion ChannelsAction Potentials and Refractory PeriodsNerve ImpulseRefractory Periods and Nerve ActionSaltatory Conduction and the Myelin SheathCLINICAL FOCUS 4-2 Multiple Sclerosis4-4 Into the Nervous System and Back OutHow Sensory Stimuli Produce Action PotentialsHow Nerve Impulses Produce MovementCLINICAL FOCUS 4-4 ALS: Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Chapter 5How Do Neurons Communicate and Adapt?5-1 A Chemical Message RESEARCH FOCUS 5-1 The Basis of Neural Communication in a HeartbeatEXPERIMENT 5-1 Question: How does a neuron pass on a message?CLINICAL FOCUS 5-2 Parkinson DiseaseStructure of SynapsesNeurotransmission in Five StepsVarieties of SynapsesExcitatory and Inhibitory MessagesRESEARCH FOCUS 5-3 Dendritic Spines: Small but MightyEvolution of Complex Neurotransmission Systems5-2 Varieties of Neurotransmitters and ReceptorsFour Criteria for Identifying NeurotransmittersClasses of NeurotransmittersCLINICAL FOCUS 5-4 Awakening with L-DopaVarieties of Receptors5-3 Neurotransmitter Systems and BehaviorNeurotransmission in the Somatic Nervous System (SNS)Dual Activating Systems of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)Enteric Nervous System (ENS) AutonomyFour Activating Systems in the Central Nervous SystemCLINICAL FOCUS 5-5 The Case of the Frozen Addict5-4 HormonesHierarchical Control of HormonesClasses and Functions of HormonesHomeostatic HormonesAnabolic-Androgenic SteroidsGlucocorticoids and Stress

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Chapter 6How Do Drugs Influence Brain and Behavior?6-1 Principles of PsychopharmacologyCLINICAL FOCUS 6-1 Cognitive Enhancement?Drug Routes into the Nervous SystemDrug Action at Synapses: Agonists and AntagonistsAn Acetylcholine Synapse: Examples of Drug ActionToleranceEXPERIMENT 6-1 Question: Will the constant consumption of alcohol produce tolerance?SensitizationEXPERIMENT 6-2 Question: Does the injection of a drug always produce the same behavior?6-2 Psychoactive DrugsAdenosinergicCholinergicGABAergicCLINICAL FOCUS 6-2 Fetal Alcohol Spectrum DisorderGlutamatergicDopaminergicRESEARCH FOCUS 6-3 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity DisorderSerotonergicCLINICAL FOCUS 6-4 Major DepressionOpioidergicCLINICAL FOCUS 6-5 The Opioid Overdose Death EpidemicCannabinergic6-3 Factors Influencing Individual Responses to DrugsBehavior on DrugsSubstance Use Disorder, Withdrawal, and AddictionRisk Factors for Substance Use DisorderIndividual and Sex Differences in Substance Use Disorder6-4 Explaining Substance Use and MisuseWanting-and-Liking TheoryWhy Doesn’t Everyone Develop Substance Use Disorder?Issues Related to Treating Substance Use DisorderCan Drugs Cause Brain Damage?CLINICAL FOCUS 6-6 Drug-Induced Psychosis

Chapter 7How Do We Study the Brain’s Structures and Functions?7-1 Measuring and Manipulating Brain and BehaviorRESEARCH FOCUS 7-1 Tuning in to LanguageEarly Origins of Behavioral NeuroscienceRESEARCH FOCUS 7-2 Brainbow: Rainbow NeuronsEXPERIMENT 7-1 Question: Do hippocampal neurons contribute to memory formation?Methods of Behavioral NeuroscienceManipulating Brain-Behavior InteractionsCLINICAL FOCUS 7-3 Brain Organoids and Personalized Medicine7-2 Measuring the Brain’s Electrical ActivityRecording Action Potentials from Single CellsEEG: Recording Graded Potentials from Thousands of CellsMapping Brain Function with Event-Related PotentialsMagnetoencephalography7-3 Anatomical Imaging Techniques: CT and MRI7-4 Functional Brain ImagingFunctional Magnetic Resonance ImagingOptical TomographyPositron Emission Tomography7-5 Chemical and Genetic Measures of Brain and BehaviorMeasuring Brain ChemistryMeasuring Genes in Brain and BehaviorEpigenetics: Measuring Gene Expression7-6 Comparing Neuroscience Research Methods7-7 Computational Neuroscience and Deep Learning7-8 Ethical ConsiderationsNeuroethicsUsing Nonhuman Species in Brain-Behavior Research

Chapter 8How Does the Nervous System Develop and Adapt?8-1 Three Perspectives on Brain DevelopmentRESEARCH FOCUS 8-1 Linking Socioeconomic Status to Cortical DevelopmentCorrelating Emerging Brain Structures with Emerging BehaviorsCorrelating Emerging Behaviors with Neural MaturationIdentifying Influences on Brain and Behavior8-2 Neurobiology of DevelopmentGross Development of the Human Nervous SystemOrigins of Neurons and GliaNeuronal Growth and DevelopmentCLINICAL FOCUS 8-2 Autism Spectrum DisorderGlial DevelopmentUnique Aspects of Frontal Lobe Development8-3 Using Emerging Behaviors to Infer Neural MaturationMotor BehaviorsLanguage DevelopmentDevelopment of Problem-Solving AbilityEXPERIMENT 8-1 Question: In what sequence do the forebrain structures required for learning and memory mature?A Caution about Linking Correlation to Causation8-4 Brain Development and the EnvironmentExperience and Cortical OrganizationRESEARCH FOCUS 8-3 Keeping Brains Young by Making MusicEnvironmental Influences on the Pace of Brain DevelopmentExperience and Neural ConnectivityCritical Periods for Experience and Brain DevelopmentGut Bacteria and Brain Development8-5 Abnormal Experience and Brain DevelopmentAversive Experience and Brain DevelopmentCLINICAL FOCUS 8-4 Romanian OrphansInjury and Brain DevelopmentOther Sources of Abnormal Brain DevelopmentCLINICAL FOCUS 8-5 SchizophreniaDevelopmental DisabilityHow Do Any of Us Develop a Normal Brain?

Chapter 9How Do We Sense, Perceive, and See the World?9-1 Nature of Sensation and PerceptionCLINICAL FOCUS 9-1 Migraines and a Case of BlindsightSensory ReceptorsNeural RelaysSensory Coding and RepresentationPerception9-2 The Visual System’s Functional AnatomyStructure of the RetinaThe Basics: Visible Light and the Structure of the EyePhotoreceptorsCLINICAL FOCUS 9-2 Visual IlluminanceTypes of Retinal NeuronsCLINICAL FOCUS 9-3 GlaucomaVisual PathwaysDorsal and Ventral Visual Streams9-3 Location in the Visual WorldCoding Location in the RetinaLocation in the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus and Region V1Visual Corpus Callosum9-4 Neuronal ActivitySeeing ShapeSeeing ColorRESEARCH FOCUS 9-4 Color-Deficient VisionNeuronal Activity in the Dorsal Stream9-5 The Visual Brain in ActionInjury to the Visual Pathway Leading to the CortexInjury to the What PathwayInjury to the How Pathway9-6 Plasticity in the Visual Pathways

Chapter 10How Do We Hear, Speak, and Make Music?10-1 Sound Waves: Stimulus for AuditionRESEARCH FOCUS 10-1 Evolution of Music and LanguagePhysical Properties of Sound WavesCLINICAL FOCUS 10-2 TinnitusPerception of SoundProperties of Spoken Language and Music as Sounds10-2 Functional Anatomy of the Auditory SystemStructure of the EarAuditory ReceptorsRESEARCH FOCUS 10-3 Otoacoustic EmissionsPathways to the Auditory CortexRESEARCH FOCUS 10-4 Seeing with SoundAuditory Cortex10-3 Neural Activity and HearingHearing PitchCLINICAL FOCUS 10-5 Cochlear Implant in a Deaf ChildDetecting LoudnessDetecting LocationDetecting Patterns in Sound10-4 Anatomy of Language and MusicProcessing LanguageProcessing MusicRESEARCH FOCUS 10-6 The Brain’s Music System10-5 Auditory Communication in Nonhuman SpeciesBirdsongWhale Songs

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Chapter 11How Does the Nervous System Respond to Stimulation and Produce Movement?11-1 Hierarchical and Parallel Movement ControlRESEARCH FOCUS 11-1 NeuroprostheticsThe Basics: Relating the Somatosensory and Motor SystemsForebrain: Initiating MovementBrainstem: Species-Typical MovementEXPERIMENT 11-1 Question: What are the effects of brainstem stimulation under different conditions?CLINICAL FOCUS 11-2 Cerebral PalsySpinal Cord: Executing Movement11-2 Motor System OrganizationMotor CortexMapping the Motor CortexMotor Cortex and Skilled MovementEXPERIMENT 11-2 Question: How does the motor cortex take part in the control of movement?Plasticity in the Motor CortexEXPERIMENT 11-3 Question: What is the effect of rehabilitation on the cortical representation of the forelimb after brain damage?Corticospinal TractsMotor NeuronsControl of Muscles11-3 Basal Ganglia, Cerebellum, and MovementBasal Ganglia and the Force of MovementCLINICAL FOCUS 11-3 Tourette SyndromeCerebellum and Movement SkillEXPERIMENT 11-4 Question: Does the cerebellum help make adjustments required to keep movements accurate?11-4 Somatosensory System Receptors and PathwaysSomatosensory Receptors and PerceptionPosterior Root Ganglion NeuronsSomatosensory Pathways to the BrainSpinal ReflexesFeeling and Treating PainRESEARCH FOCUS 11-4 Phantom Limb PainVestibular System and Balance11-5 Exploring the Somatosensory CortexSomatosensory Body MapRESEARCH FOCUS 11-5 TicklingSecondary Somatosensory CortexEffects of Somatosensory Cortex DamageSomatosensory Cortex and the Hierarchy and Parallel Control of Movement

Chapter 12What Causes Emotional and Motivated Behavior?12-1 Identifying the Causes of BehaviorRESEARCH FOCUS 12-1 The Pain of RejectionBehavior for Brain MaintenanceNeural Circuits and BehaviorEvolutionary Influences on BehaviorEnvironmental Influences on Behavior12-2 Neuroanatomy of Motivated BehaviorRegulatory and Nonregulatory BehaviorActivities of the Hypothalamic Circuit12-3 The Role of the Chemical Senses in Motivated BehaviorOlfactionGustationImpairments in the Chemical Sense and Behavior12-4 Control of Regulatory BehaviorControlling EatingEXPERIMENT 12-1 Question: Does the hypothalamus play a role in eating?CLINICAL FOCUS 12-2 Diets and RhythmsControlling Drinking12-5 Sexual Differences and Sexual BehaviorSexual Differentiation of the BrainRESEARCH FOCUS 12-3 The Brain Gender ContinuumEffects of Sex Hormones on the BrainCLINICAL FOCUS 12-4 Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome and the Androgenital SyndromeNeural Control of Sexual BehaviorSexual Orientation, Sexual Identity, and Brain OrganizationCognitive Influences on Sexual Behavior12-6 The Neural Control of EmotionTheories of EmotionEmotion and the Limbic CircuitCLINICAL FOCUS 12-5 Agenesis of the Frontal Lobes12-7 RewardThe Reward SystemMapping Pleasure in the BrainPleasure Electrodes?

Chapter 13Why Do We Sleep and Dream?13-1 A Clock for All SeasonsCLINICAL FOCUS 13-1 Doing the Right Thing at the Right TimeBiological RhythmsThe Origin of BiorhythmsEXPERIMENT 13-1 Question: Is plant movement exogenous or endogenous?Free-Running RhythmsZeitgebersCLINICAL FOCUS 13-2 Seasonal Affective Disorder13-2 The Suprachiasmatic Biological ClockSuprachiasmatic RhythmsKeeping TimeRESEARCH FOCUS 13-3 Synchronizing Biorhythms at the Molecular LevelPacemaking Circadian RhythmsPacemaking Circannual RhythmsChronotypesRhythms of Cognitive and Emotional Behavior13-3 Sleep Stages and DreamingMeasuring How Long We SleepMeasuring SleepStages of Waking and SleepingA Typical Night’s SleepContrasting N-Sleep and R-SleepDreamingWhat We Dream About13-4 What Does Sleep Accomplish?Sleep as a Biological AdaptationSleep as a Restorative ProcessSleep for Memory StorageBrain Events During Memory Storage13-5 The Neural Bases of SleepReticular Activating System and SleepNeural Basis of R-Sleep13-6 Disorders of SleepInsomnia: Inability to SleepHypersomnia: Inability to Stay AwakeBreathing DisordersParasomniasCataplexyCLINICAL FOCUS 13-4 OrexinSleep-Related Movement Disorder13-7 What Does Sleep Tell Us about the Brain?

Chapter 14How Do We Learn and Remember?14-1 Connecting Learning and MemoryCLINICAL FOCUS 14-1 Remediating DyslexiaStudying Learning and Memory in the LaboratoryEXPERIMENT 14-1 Question: Does an animal learn the association between emotional experience and environmental stimuli?Two Categories of MemoryWhat Makes Explicit and Implicit Memory Different?What Is Special about Personal Memories?14-2 Dissociating Memory CircuitsDisrupting Explicit MemoryCLINICAL FOCUS 14-2 Patient Boswell’s AmnesiaDisrupting Implicit Memory14-3 Neural Systems Underlying Explicit and Implicit MemoriesNeural Circuit for Explicit MemoriesCLINICAL FOCUS 14-3 Alzheimer DiseaseCLINICAL FOCUS 14-4 Korsakoff SyndromeConsolidation of Explicit MemoriesNeural Circuit for Implicit MemoriesNeural Circuit for Emotional MemoriesEvolution of Memory Systems14-4 Structural Basis of Brain PlasticityHabituation and Sensitization in AplysiaEXPERIMENT 14-2 Question: What happens to the gill response after repeated stimulation?EXPERIMENT 14-3 Question: What happens to the gill response in sensitization?Long-Term PotentiationMeasuring Synaptic ChangeEnriched Experience and PlasticitySensory or Motor Training and PlasticityEXPERIMENT 14-4 Question: Does the learning of a fine motor skill alter the cortical motor map?RESEARCH FOCUS 14-5 Movement, Learning, and NeuroplasticityEpigenetics of MemoryPlasticity, Hormones, Trophic Factors, and DrugsEXPERIMENT 14-5 Question: What effect do repeated doses of amphetamine, a psychomotor stimulant, have on neurons?Some Guiding Principles of Brain Plasticity14-5 Recovery from Brain InjuryDonna’s Experience with Traumatic Brain Injury

Chapter 15How Does the Brain Think?15-1 The Nature of ThoughtRESEARCH FOCUS 15-1 Split BrainCharacteristics of Human ThoughtNeural Units of ThoughtCOMPARATIVE FOCUS 15-2 Animal IntelligenceEXPERIMENT 15-1 Question: How do individual neurons mediate cognitive activity?15-2 Cognition and the Association CortexKnowledge about ObjectsMultisensory IntegrationSpatial CognitionAttentionPlanning and Executing FunctioningImitation and Understanding15-3 Expanding Frontiers of Cognitive NeuroscienceMapping the BrainCLINICAL FOCUS 15-3 Neuropsychological AssessmentMapping the BrainCognition and the CerebellumSocial NeuroscienceNeuroeconomics15-4 Cerebral Asymmetry in ThinkingAnatomical AsymmetryFunctional Asymmetry in Neurological PatientsFunctional Asymmetry in the Healthy BrainFunctional Asymmetry in the Split BrainEXPERIMENT 15-2 Question: Will severing the corpus callosum affect the way in which the brain responds?EXPERIMENT 15-3 (A) Question: How can the right hemisphere of a split-brain patient show that it knows information? (B) Question: What happens if both hemispheres are asked to respond to competing information?Explaining Cerebral AsymmetryLeft Hemisphere, Language, and Thought15-5 Variations in Cognitive OrganizationSex Differences in Cognitive OrganizationHandedness and Cognitive OrganizationCLINICAL FOCUS 15-4 Sodium Amobarbital TestSynesthesia15-6 IntelligenceConcept of General IntelligenceDivergent and Convergent IntelligenceIntelligence, Heredity, Epigenetics, and the SynapseHow Smart Brains Differ15-7 ConsciousnessWhy Are We Conscious?EXPERIMENT 15-4 Question: Can people alter their movements without conscious awareness?What Is the Neural Basis of Consciousness?

Chapter 16What Happens When the Brain Misbehaves?16-1 Multidisciplinary Contributions to Brain and BehaviorRESEARCH FOCUS 16-1 Posttraumatic Stress DisorderClinical NeuroscienceBehavioral Disorders16-2 Psychiatric DisordersSchizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic DisordersMood DisordersRESEARCH FOCUS 16-2 Antidepressant Action and Brain Repair16-3 Neurological DisordersTraumatic Brain InjuryCLINICAL FOCUS 16-3 ConcussionStrokeCLINICAL FOCUS 16-4 Cerebral AneurysmsEpilepsyMultiple SclerosisNeurocognitive DisordersTreatments for Neurocognitive DisordersRESEARCH FOCUS 16-5 Treating Behavioral Disorders with Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation16-4 Research ChallengesOrganizational ComplexitySystemic ComplexityNeuronal PlasticityCompensatory PlasticityTechnological ResolutionModeling SimplicityModeling Limitations16-5 Posttraumatic Growth and Apathy

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